Working Women

2.1 Outline

Japan began to walk along the road towards a modern state about 100 years ago, and measures were taken for the encouragement of industry as national policy, with the result that a great number of women made their appearance as employees.

As Japan attained a high degree of economic growth and industrialization, the number of working women was on a remarkable upturn. There was a drop in the number of working women engaged in primary industry, such as agriculture, forestry and fisheries, and there appeared a sharp rise in the number of working women in tertiary industry (service, wholesale and retail trades, and eating and drinking places, etc) and secondary industry (manufacturing, etc.).

In 1950, the number of women engaged in agriculture and forestry accounted for more than to 60% of working women, but this percentage dropped to 5.7% in 1998. As for their employment status, there has been a drop in the number of family workers and sharp rise in the number of paid employees. In 1950, female paid employees totaled 3,630,000 persons (one quarter of the total number of employed women), but the number exceeded 10,000,000 (half of the total number of employed women) in 1967. At present, female paid employees total about 21,240,000 and account for 39.6% of all paid employees.

Source: Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Fig.8  Change in the structure of employed women by status of employment

As the Japanese economy made remarkable progress in the 1960s, there was an increased demand for labour and the shortage of manpower constituted an acute problem, resulting in the recognition of women as full labour force both in qualitative and quantitative terms. On the other hand, with the drop in the birth rate, elevation of the educational level and increased motivations for betterment of their living, women have been all the more inclined to go out to work. As a result, there has been a marked advance in the employment of middle- and high-aged women, thus bringing about a change in the life pattern of women workers.

2.2 Present status of women workers

The following is the analysis of the present situation of female paid employees.

The number of female employees is 21,240,000 (as of 1998) which accounts for 39.6% of all paid employees. In recent years, the number of female employees aged 35 years and over has increased remarkably, accounting for 60.2% of the total number of female employees. As a result, the average age of female employees rose gradually, from the age of 26.3 in 1960 to 37.3 in 1997. The number of married working women followed this trend, and their ratio amounted in 1998 to 56.9% of the grand total of female employees (non-agriculture and forestry). It amounted to 66.5%, when those who lost and divorced their husbands were included.

Female employees are working mainly in such industries as services, wholesale and retail trade, eating and drinking place, and manufacturing. Resulting from the rising rate of female students going up to higher education, the percentage of female graduates from higher education is increasing, and they penetrate a great deal into fields of professional and technical occupations. Thus, due to the rising educational level of women coupled with the advancement of technological innovation, etc., the working area for women is now being widened.

The role of women in economic and social development of this country will increase its importance hereafter, and it is considered that the vocational life of women will increase its weight throughout their whole life.

Source: Bureau of Statistics, Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Fig.9  Number of employees

Source: Bureau of Statistics, Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Fig. 10  Age-specific female labour force participation rate

Source: Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Fig. 11  Distribution of female workers by industry

Table 6  Female employees by occupation

Source: Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Wage Structure

Fig. 12  Distribution of female employees by length of service

Source: Bureau of Statistics, Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Fig. 13  Marital status of female employees (non-agriculture and forestry)

Table 7  Average age and average length of service

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basics Survey on Wage Structure.

Table 8   Structure of female employees by age group

Source: Managemnet and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Table 9  Employment rates of females by age group

Source: Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Note: Employment rate is percentage of employees against the population aged fifteen years and over.

Table 10  Distribution of educational attainments of female employees fresh from school

Source: Ministry of Education, Basic Survey on Schools.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Statistical Survey on Wage Structure, June 1997.

Note: Standard workers refer to those entering enterprises upon graduation from schools and working for the same enterprises continuously.

The wage gap between men and women is derived from the following factors.

The seniority wage system, a common practice in Japanese enterprises, is one of the vitally important factors causing wage differentials between men and women. Since a number of women resign for reasons of marriage, childbirth and child care, their average length of service is consequently shorter than that of men workers. This contributes greatly to creating wage gaps between men and women.

Secondly, in many cases, women work in certain industries or small-scale companies where the wage levels are comparatively low.

Thirdly, disparity in academic background between men and women workers, and a higher rate of part-time workers among women, which causes the gap in the number of hours worked between men and women, are also mentioned as contributing factors.

Furthermore, the Japanese wage system often provides various forms of allowances, such as for dependent family and housing. However, these fringe benefits are often made available only to the heads of households, most of whom are men. Therefore women seldom enjoy these allowances. This is another factor creating the wage differential between the sexes.

So, as stated above, if comparison is made on the condition that the age, length of service and academic background are equal between men and women, women in their 20s receive about 90% of their male counterparts' wages and women in their 50s, the age bracket which tends to show a large gap, get about 70% of the wages of their male counterparts (Table 11).

Working hours of women in 1997 were 141.1 hours per month. As a recent tendency, working hours have been decreasing for both men and women.

Another recent character of women's labour is an increase of the number of part-time workers. As of 1998, there are 11.13 million part-time workers in the country, and 67.9% of these are women. They account for 36.5% of the nation's female employees.

Thus, the ratio of part-time workers to all employed women is expected to go on increasing in future.

Source: Prime Minister's Office, Public Opinion Survey on Joint Participation of Men and Women, 1995.

Fig. 14  Women's attitudes towards occupation

2.3 Women's attitudes towards their economic activities

Formerly in Japan, most of women in employment were young and unmarried. But women have been able to enjoy wider choices of participation in the labour market. Some are willing to stay in employment even after they get married and bear children. Others prefer to stop working when they get married and re-enter the labour market after raising children. And still some proportion of women want to stay at home after marriage.

Public Opinion Survey on Joint Participation of Men and Women undertaken in 1995 shows that 40% of women think it best if they re-enter employment after raising children. 18% of them think it preferable to stay at home after marriage or childbirth, and another 33% of them think it preferable to take a job and stay long in employment. A large proportion of women wish to stop working while they are responsible for bringing up children.

2.4 Changes in female employment policy within companies

Since the Equal Employment Opportunity Law was promulgated on June 1, 1985, the Ministry of Labour has made all-out efforts to widely publicize the objectives and contents of the Law, as well as the Ministry Ordinances and Guidelines related to its enforcement.

The Ministry and the Prefectural Women's and Young Workers' Offices held seminars and lectures on the Law for employers, trade unions, job-advertising agencies, school employment officers and other concerned, while they carried out public relations activities through mass media such as newspapers, radio and television programs as well as public relations magazines and other means.

As a result, many companies have improved their personnel management to the standard required by the Law, while at the same time there is a strengthening social trend to make effective use of women's abilities and a growing awareness among women themselves about their own employment potential, and in this light, the spirit of the Law is steadily gaining ground within industry and society.

The Ministry is adopting measures to ensure that women are not treated unfavourably when new graduates are being recruited or employed. The Ministry is also unfolding an education campaign to make sure that its guidelines and measures are widely known and understood by all concerned.

In commemoration of the promulgation of the Law on June 1, 1985, June was designated beginning in 1986, the first year of enforcement of the Law, as "Equal Employment Opportunity Month," during which special activities are carried out to help deepen the awareness and understanding of society in general, including workers and employers, regarding the need to guarantee equal opportunity and treatment in employment for men and women and to develop vocational ability of women and use it effectively.

Moreover, Prefectural Women's and Young Workers' Offices across the country have dealt with a large number of consultative questions on equal opportunity and treatment in employment from women workers, employers and others, and also have been giving advice and guidance in accordance with the Law in the order to settle individual disputes and to improve the personnel management system of enterprises.

According to the surveys carried out by the Ministry of Labour since the year when the Equal Employment Opportunity Law came into force, there have been increasing numbers of recruitments regardless of sex, women in so-called "men's jobs" and women in the managerial posts. And many companies have improved their personnel management system to comply with the Equal EmploymentOpportunity Law in various aspects such as correction of compulsory retirement age which was different between men and women.

The society is changing and accepting women and making more effective use of their ability and ambition.

The most important goal in the areas of public policy from now on is to ensure that the Law is faithfully observed throughout the society so as to promote equal opportunity and treatment between men and women in all areas and levels of employment, in practice as well as in theory.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Survey on Women Worker's Employment Management, 1995.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Survey on Women Worker's Employment Management, 1995.

Note: Percentage of Corporations with Women's Managerial Posts = Corporations with Women's Managerial Posts of POsition Concerned X100 Corporations with Position Concerned

Percentage of Women with Managerial Posts = Number of WOmen Concerned with Managerial Posts X100 Total Number of Managerial Posts Concerned

Source: Ministry of labour, Survey on Women Workers' Employment Management, 1992

2.5 Child-care leave and family-care leave

´ Problems surrounding harmonization of working life with family life

In Japan, women have actively advanced into the society, and an increasing number of women want to continue working (Fig. 18). However, women's labour force participation rate according to age and social class forms a curve of the letter M, which drops at the child-care period and then rises again.

Source: Prime Minister's Office, Attitude Survey on Women (October 1972), Public Opinion Poll on Women (May 1984), Public Opinion Poll on Joint Participation by Men and Women (July 1995). Note: The 1972 survey was conducted for those above 18 years old, while the 1984 and 1995 surveys were for those above 20.

To the question, "What prevents women from keeping on working?," many women gave answers such as "child rearing" and "nursing care for the elderly or sick family members" (Fig. 19).

Sources: Complied from the Prime Minister's Office, Public Opinion Poll on Women's Employment (1983), the Economic Planning Agency, Preference Survey on National Life (1996).

Notes: 1. The respndents of the 1983 survey were 2,418 women from 20 to 59 years old. 2. The Preference Survey was conducted for those from 15 to 74 years old, but to compare it with the 1983 survey, the response rate of 1,490 women from 20 to 59 years old was shown for the Preference Survey (1996).

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Women Workers' Employmetn Managemnet, 1996.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Women Workers' Employmetn Managemnet, 1996.

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Women Workers' Employmetn Managemnet, 1996.

The percentage of the workplaces which have introduced measures for shortening working hours, etc. was 9.2%, but the figure rises to 37.7% for the workplaces which replied that they had a family-care leave system. The details of the measures of the workplaces with such systems are: reduced working hours at 81.2%, flextime system for family care at 16.8%, change to the start and end of work at 36.8% and aid to expenses for family care at 5.4% (Fig. 20).

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Women Workers' Employment Management, 1996.

The percentage of workplaces having measures for shortening working hours, etc. is 41.2%. The details are: reduced working hour system at 60.0%, flextime system for child care at 14.2%, change to the start and end of work at 43.7%, exemption from overtime work at 48.8%, establishment of company nurseries for workers with infants at 4.4%, and aid to expenses required for child care at 2.1% (Fig. 21, plural answers).

Source: Ministry of Labour, Basic Survey on Women Workers' Employment Management, 1996.

2.6 Part-time workers

A gradual shift towards a service economy and a growing diversification of workers' perception of work has led to a substantial increase in the number of part-time workers in Japan. In 1998 there were 11,130,000 workers in the non-agricultural industries working fewer than 35 hours per week, or 21.2% of total workers (Fig. 22). Moreover, the average years of service to the company are extending and the range of occupational fields is expanding, and in the midst of these fundamental changes to the employment structure within Japan, part-time workers are playing a significant socio-economic role.

Source: Bureau of Statistics, Management and Coordination Agency, Labour Force Survey.

Note: "Workers" excludes absentees.

 

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